1. Epic (史诗)（appeared in the the Anglo-Saxon Period ）
It is a narrative of heroic action, often with a principal hero, usually mythical in its content, grand in its style, offering inspiration and ennoblement within a particular culture or national tradition.
A long narrative poem telling about the deeds of great hero and reflecting the values of the society from which it originated.
Epic is an extended narrative poem in elevated or dignified language, like Homer’s Iliad & Odyssey. It usually celebrates the feats of one or more legendary or traditional heroes. The action is simple, but full of magnificence.
Today, some long narrative works, like novels that reveal an age & its people, are also called epic. . Beowulf （ the pagan（异教徒），secular(非宗教的) poetry） Iliad 《伊利亚特》，Odyssey《奥德赛》 Paradise Lost 《失乐园》，The Divine Comedy《神曲》
2. Romance （传奇）(Anglo-Norman feudal England)
• Romance is any imaginative literature that is set in an idealized world and that deals with
heroic adventures and battles between good characters and villains or monsters.
• Originally, the term referred to a medieval (中世纪) tale dealing with the love and adventures
of kings, queens, knights, and ladies, and including supernatural happenings.
Form: long composition, in verse, in prose
Content: description of life and adventures of a noble hero
Character: a knight, a man of noble birth, skilled in the use of weapons; often described as riding
forth to seek adventures, taking part in tournaments(骑士比武), or fighting for his lord in battles; devoted to the church and the king
• Romance lacks general resemblance to truth or reality.
• It exaggerates the vices of human nature and idealizes the virtues.
• It contains perilous (dangerous) adventures more or less remote from ordinary life. • It lays emphasis on supreme devotion to a fair lady.
①The Romance Cycles/Groups/Divisions
Three Groups
matters of Britain Adventures of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table （亚瑟王和他的圆桌骑
士）
matters of France Emperor Charlemagne and his peers
matters of Rome Alexander the Great and the attacks of Troy Le Morte D’Arthur （亚瑟王之死）
②Class Nature (阶级性) of the Romance
Loyalty to king and lord was the theme of the romances, as loyalty was the corner-stone（the most important part基石）of feudal morality.
The romances were composed not for the common but for the noble, of the noble, and by the poets patronized（supported 庇护,保护） by the noble.
3. Alliteration（押头韵）: a repeated initial(开头的) consonant(协调,一致) to successive(连续的) words.
a song of southern singer
. his kin the kindest, keenest for praise.
4. Understatement（低调陈述）（for ironical humor）
not troublesome: very welcome
need not praise: a right to condemn
5. Chronicle《编年史》（a monument of Old English prose）
6. Ballads （民谣）（The most important department of English folk literature ）
①Definition:
A ballad is a narrative poem that tells a story, and is usually meant to be sung or recited in
musical form.
An important stream of the Medieval folk literature
②Features of English Ballads
1. The ballads are in various English and Scottish dialects.
2. They were created collectively and revised when handed down from mouth to mouth.
3. They are mainly the literature of the peasants, and give an outlook of the English common people in feudal society.
③Stylistic （风格上） Features of the Ballads
1. Composed in couplets （相连并押韵的两行诗,对句） or in quatrains （四行诗） known as the ballad stanza （民谣诗节 ）, rhyming abab or abcb, with the first and third lines carrying 4 accented syllables （重读音节） and the second and fourth carrying 3.
2. Simple, plain language or dialect （方言，土语） of the common people with colloquial （口语的，会话的）, vivid and, sometimes, idiomatic （符合当地语言习惯的） expressions 3. Telling a good story with a vivid presentation around the central plot. 4. Using a high proportion of dialogue with a romantic or tragic dimension （方面） to achieve dramatic effect.
④Subjects of English Ballads
1. struggle of young lovers
2. conflict between love and wealth 3. cruelty of jealousy
4. criticism of the civil war 5. matters of class struggle
7. Heroic couplet （英雄双韵体）（introduced by Geoffrey Chaucer）
Definition: the rhymed couplet of iambic pentameter; a verse form in epic poetry, with lines of ten
syllables and five stresses, in rhyming pairs.
英雄诗体/英雄双韵体：用于史诗或叙事诗，每行十个音节，五个音部，每两行押韵。
8. couplet（两行诗，对句）: Two consecutive lines of poetry that heroic couplet is an iambic
pentameter couplet. During the Restoration period and the 18th C. it was a popular verse form.
9. iambic pentameter: A poetic line consisting of five Verse feet (penta- is from a Greek word
meaning “five”), with each foot an iamb-- that is, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.
10. Rhyme（韵，押韵）: the repetition (反复) of sounds in two or more words or phrases that
appear close to each other in a poem. E .g . river/shiver, song/long
11. meter (格律) （属于Prosody ['prɔsədɪ]（韵文学;诗体学；(某语言的)韵律(学)））: A generally
regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables（音节） in poetry.
The meters with two-syllable feet are:
Iambic (x /)（抑扬格）: That time of year thou mayst in me behold Trochaic (/ x)（扬抑格）: Tell me not in mournful numbers
Spondaic (/ /)（扬扬格）: Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea!
The meters with three-syllable feet are:
anapestic (x x /)（抑抑扬格）: And the sound of a voice that is still
dactylic (/ x x)（强弱格，长短格，扬抑抑格）: This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlock
(a trochee replaces the final dactyl)
12. Rhythm（节奏，韵律）（属于Prosody ['prɔsədɪ]（韵文学;诗体学；(某语言的)韵律(学)））：
refers to the regular recurrence（反复，重现） of the accent（重读） or stress in poem or song. . the rhythm of day and night, the seasonal rhythm of the year, the beat of our hearts, and the rise and fall of sea tides, etc.
basic patterns of rhythms
a) Iambic foot (iamb['aiæmb])（抑扬格）: an unstressed syllable followed by an stressed one
as in the word “prevent” or “about” It’s time the children went to bed. We’ll learn a poem by Keats.
b) Trochaic [trəu'keiik] foot (trochee ['trəuki:])（扬抑格）: a stressed syllable followed
by an unstressed one as in “football”, “never”, “happy” or “English” William Morris taught him English. Double, double, toil and trouble. Fire burns and cauldron bubble.
c) Anapestic foot (anapest [ˈænəpi:st] )（抑抑扬格）: two unstressed syllables followed by
a stressed one as in “comprehend” or “intervene” I’ve been working in China for forty years.
d) Dactylic foot (dactyl)（强弱格，长短格，扬抑抑格）: a stressed syllable followed by two
unstressed ones as in “dangerous”, “cheerfully”, “yesterday” or “merrily”
13．Common line lengths:
number of feet per line
• one foot monometer [mɔ'nɔmitə] (rare)（单音部） • two feet dimeter ['dimitə] (二步) • three feet trimester ['trimitə](三步)
• four feet tetrameter [te'træmitə](四步) • five feet pentameter [pen'tæmitə](五步) • six feet hexameter [hek'sæmitə]
• seven feet heptameter [hep'tæmitə] (rare) • eight feet octameter [ɔk'tæmitə] (rare)
14．Line patterns:
Couplet（相连并押韵的两行诗,对句）: 2 lines rhyming with each other
• A heroic couplet is an iambic pentameter couplet.
Tercet ['tə:sit]（三行押韵诗句,三拍子）: 3 lines, terza rima (aba, bcb, cdc, ded) Quatrain ['kwɔtrein]（四行诗）: 4 lines, ballad stanza (abcb)
Octave ['ɔktɪv, -,teɪv]（八行诗）: 8 lines, ottava rima (abababcc)
Spenserian stanza （斯宾塞诗节）: 9 lines (ababbcbcc) （The Faerie Queene（仙后））
Sonnet （十四行诗）: 14 lines (Shakespearean: ababcdcdefefgg)
Example:
She walks in beauty, like the night
of cloudless climes and starry skies; And all that’s best of dark and bright Meet in her aspect and her eyes: Thus mellow’d to that tender light
Which heaven to gaudy day denies 1. Foot and length: Iambic tetrameter 2. Rhyme (scheme): ababab
15．Humanism
1) Humanism is the essence of the Renaissance. According to humanists, human beings were glorious creatures capable of individual development in the direction of perfection and the world can be questioned, explored and enjoyed.
2) By emphasizing the dignity of human beings and the importance of the present life, in contrast to the medieval emphasis on God and contempt for the things of this world, they voiced their beliefs that man did not only have the right to pursue happiness of this life, but had the ability to perfect himself and to perform wanders.
16. Drama
1. Definition
• Drama is “a composition in prose or verse, adapted to be acted upon a stage, in which a story is related by means of dialogue and action, and is represented with accompanying gesture, costume, and scenery, as in real life.”
2. The Development of Drama
1. Religious Period
1) Mystery plays presented stories from the Old and New Testament of the Bible.
• Creation of the World, the Fall, the Great Flood, Redemption, Final Judgment, etc. • The birth of the Christ—child symbolized hope in the darkness of winter; Christ’s resurrection（复活） accorded with the earth’s renewal in spring, and the promise of harvest at midsummer.
2) Miracle plays （奇迹剧）
• Dramatizing（将-改编成剧本） the lives and miracles of saints, or divine intervention (神的干预，介入) in human affairs, that is, stories from the lives of saints.
• Often focused on blessed virgin Mary 3) Morality plays （道德剧）
• Presenting stories containing abstract（抽象的） virtues and vices （美德和恶习）as characters.
• They were plays which had a moral message: Good and Evil fight for domination（统治） of the human soul.
• Everyman, the best example, is the story of a character representing mankind.
2. Artistic Period
The first Comedy, Ralph Roister Doister《拉尔夫·罗伊斯特·多伊斯特》written by the
schoolmaster, Nicholas Udall between 1550 and 1553
The first English tragedy, Gorboduc written in 1561 by Thomas Sackville and Thomas
Norton
3. Elements of drama
1. Plot (情节)
The structure of a play’s action, the order of the incidents, their arrangement and form.
2. Character(人物): the vital center of a play
How they look, what they say and in what manners they say; what they do and how their
actions reveal who they are and what they represent
The human qualities are the most engaging feature. 3. Dialogue(对白)
Drama is described as “persons moving about on stage using words.”
Major functions of Dialogue: to advance the plot, to establish setting, and to reveal character.
4. Staging(舞台设计)
Things like positions of actors, nonverbal gestures and movements, scenic background,
props and costumes, lighting and sound effects
5. Theme(主题): the central idea of the play.
4. Dramatic Terms
1. Script(脚本): the written work from which a drama isproduced. It contains stage directions
and
Dialogue
2. Stage Directions(舞台指导): notes provided by the playwright to describe how something
should be presented or performed on stage
3. Monologue(独白): a long speech given by an actor
4. Soliloquy(独白): a speech given by a character who is alone (or thinks he is alone) on stage 5. Aside(旁白): a statement intended to be heard by the audience or by a single other character
but not by all the other characters on stage
6. Act(幕): a major division of a drama
7. Scene(场): a division of an act. A scene typically begins with the entrance of one or more
characters and ends with the exit of one or more characters.
17. Comedy(喜剧)（Drama form）
A play written chiefly to amuse its audience by appealing to a sense of superiority over the characters depicted. A comedy will normally be closer to everyday life than a tragedy, and will explore common human failings rather than tragedy’s disastrous crimes. Its ending will usually be happy for the leading characters.
• . （莎士比亚）Romantic Comedies（the overcoming the obstacle of love）: As You Like It(皆大欢喜), A Midsummer Night’s Dream, The Twelfth Night, & The Merchant of Venice（威尼斯商人）
18. Tragedy（Drama form）
• A serious play or novel representing the disastrous downfall of a central character, the
protagonist. According to Aristotle, the purpose is to achieve a catharsis through incidents arousing pity and terror. The tragic effect usually depends on our awareness of admirable qualities in he protagonist, which are wasted terribly in the fated disaster. • . （莎士比亚）Great Tragedies（四大悲剧）（explores the faults/weaknesses of humans）: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear& Macbeth
19. dramatic Romance (tragi-comedy)（悲喜剧）（莎士比亚）（Drama form）:
• Romances focus on the separation and reunion of families rather than love and marriage.
• Endings were characterized by homecoming, recognition, reconciliation, and forgiveness. • The romances are set in mythical worlds where supernatural and magic and unlikely
coincidences are commonplace.
. Pericles《波里克利斯》, Cymbeline《辛柏林》, The Winter’s Tale《冬天的故事》, The Tempest《暴风雨》
20. Monologue（长篇独白）
• An extended speech uttered by one speaker, either to others or alone. Significant varieties
include the dramatic monologue (a kind of poem in which the speaker is imagined to be addressing a silent audience), and the soliloquy (in which the speaker is supposed to be “overheard（偷听，无意中听到）” while alone).
21. Soliloquy
•
A dramatic speech delivered by one character speaking aloud while under the impression
of being alone. The soliloquist thus reveals his or her inner thoughts and feelings to the audience, either in supposed self-communion（自我反省） or in a consciously direct address（演说，演讲）. It is also known as interior monologue.内心独白
22. The basic plot of the play ( Freytag’s pyramid )
1. Exposition (阐述，讲解，说明): provides the background information needed to properly
understand the story, such as the protagonist, the antagonist, the basic conflict, and the setting.
2. Rising action（发展）: during rising action, the basic internal（内部） conflict is
complicated（复杂） by the introduction of related secondary conflicts, including various obstacles that frustrate the protagonist's attempt to reach his goal.
3. Climax（高潮）: the turning point, which marks a change, for the better or the worse, in
the protagonist’s affairs. If the story is a comedy, things will have gone badly for the protagonist up to this point; now, the tide, so to speak, will turn, and things will begin to go well for him or her. If the story is a tragedy, the opposite state of affairs will ensue, with things going from good to bad for the protagonist.
4. Falling action: during the falling action, or resolution, which is the moment of reversal
（反向，倒转，转变，颠倒） after the climax, the conflict between the protagonist and the antagonist unravels, with the protagonist winning or losing against the antagonist. The falling action might contain a moment of final suspense, during which the final outcome of the conflict is in doubt.
5. Dénouement, resolution, or catastrophe: comprises events between the falling action
and the actual end of the drama or narrative and thus serves as the conclusion of the story. Conflicts are resolved, creating normality for the characters and a sense of catharsis, or release of tension and anxiety, for the reader.
The comedy ends with a dénouement (a conclusion) in which the protagonist is better off than at the story's outset. The tragedy ends with a catastrophe in which the protagonist is worse off than at the beginning of the narrative.
In Shakespeare's tragedies, the dénouement is usually the death of one or more characters.
23. Dramatic irony (戏剧性讽刺)
Dramatic irony: the words or acts of a character may carry a meaning unperceived by the character
but under-stood by the audience.
Examples of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet
• Before Romeo drinks the poison, he observes that Juliet looks as though she were alive. • Romeo is cheerful because of a dream, but his hopes are quickly dashed by Balthasar’s news
of Juliet’s death.
24. Blank Verse （无韵诗）
• Unrhymed lines of iambic pentameter. It is a very flexible English verse form which can attain
rhetorical grandeur（雄伟，壮观） while echoing the natural rhythms of speech. It was first used by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, and soon became a popular form for narrative and dramatic poetry. Marlowe, Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Stevens and Robert Frost are fond of this form.
25. Sonnet
A sonnet is a lyric poem comprising 14 rhyming lines of equal length: iambic pentameter in English, hendecasyllables [hen,dekə'siləbl]（十一音节） in Italian, and alexandrines.[ˌæliɡˈzɑ:ndrain]（亚历山大诗行） in French.
1. The Italian/Petrarchan（彼得拉克） sonnet
It is named after Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374), the Italian poet. The 14 lines break into
an octave (or octet) of 2 quatrains, rhymed abbaabba (rhymed sometimes abbacddc or even abababab); and a sestet, usually rhymed cdecde or cdcdcd. 2. The English/Shakespearean sonnet It was introduced into English poetry in the early 16th century by Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503-1542).
It consists of 3 quatrains and a final couplet, rhyming abab cdcd efef gg.
An important variant is the Spenserian sonnet,which links the 3 quatrains by rhyme, rhyming
abab bcbc cdcd ee.
（quatrain: 四行诗 (每节四行,韵律一般为abab或abba)）
26. Allegory（寓言）
• A story with a double meaning: a primary or surface meaning, and a secondary or
under-the-surface meaning
• A story that can be read, understood and interpreted at two levels
Two levels of allegory
• One level examines the moral, philosophical and religious values and is represented by
the Red Cross Knight, who stands for all Christians. • The second level is the particular, which focuses on the political, social, and religious
conflicts in the then English society.
27. Types of poetry
1) Narrative poetry
epic, romance, and ballad The stress is on action,
. to tell stories and describe actions;
2) Lyric poetry
Elegies ['elədʒi:]（挽歌）, odes（颂诗，颂歌）, sonnets, epigraphs ['epiɡrɑ:f] （铭文,
碑文）, etc.
To combine speech and song to express feelings in varying degrees of verbal（口头的，
言语的） music.
28. essay（散文，随笔）
As a form of literature, the essay is a composition of moderate length, usually in prose, which deals in an easy way with the external conditions of a subject, and, in strictness, with that subject, only as it affects the writer.
1. Purpose:
Essays is intended for the ambitious Elizabethan and Jacobean youth of upper class, to tell
them how to be efficient and make their way in public life. 2. Writing style: four prominent qualities: preciseness, directness, tenseness, forcefulness
3. Bacon’s essays
Bacon offers his views on a whole smorgasbord of topics ranging from Truth, Death, Adversity,
Marriage & the Single Life, Love, Boldness, Superstition, Friendship, Health, Ambition, Youth, Beauty to Anger & Fame. 4. Features of Bacon’s essays
Bacon’s essays are the first example of that genre in English literature and have been
recognized as an important landmark in the development of English prose. The essays are famous for the pithy aphoristic style, which he had defended in principle in The Advancement of Learning as proper for the expression of tentative opinions.
. Essays «培根论文集» “Of Studies” “Of Wisdom” “Of Death” “Of Friendship” “Of Travel”, etc.
29. Metaphysical(形而上学，超自然，纯哲学) Poets
METAPHYSICAL POETS refer to a school of poets at the beginning of the 17th century England who wrote under the influence of John Donne. The works of the Metaphysical poets are characterized, generally speaking, by mysticism in content and fantasticality in form.
The most eminent poets are John Donne, George Herbert & Andrew Marwell.
30. Metaphysical Poetry
Metaphysical poetry is concerned with the whole experience of man, especially about love, romantic and sensual; about man's relationship with God, and about pleasure, learning and art. Metaphysical poems are lyric poems of brief but intense meditations, characterized by the striking use of wit, irony and wordplay. Beneath the formal structure (of rhyme, metre and stanza) is the underlying structure of the poem’s argument. In “To His Coy Mistress,” the explicit argument (Marvell's request that the coy lady yield to his passion) is a stalking horse for the more serious argument about the transitoriness of pleasure.
Rise & Fall of Metaphysical Poetry
• Metaphysical poetry was rarely read in the 17th, 18th and early 19th century.
• In the late 19th century and early 20th century, there was a renewed interest in metaphysical
poetry.
• The modernist poets . Eliot, John Ransom and Allen Tate claimed their influence by John Donne.
So John Donne became a cult figure in the early 20th century English-speaking countries.
31. Conceit （巧妙的词语；别出心裁的比喻）
A conceit is a figure of speech which makes an unusual and sometimes elaborately sustained comparison between two dissimilar things.
Metaphysical conceit
This type of conceit draws upon a wide range of knowledge, and its comparisons are elaborately（苦心经营地，精巧地） rationalized. For instance, Donne’s “The Flea” compares a flea bite to the act of love; and in “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” separated lovers are likened to the legs of a compass, the leg drawing the circle eventually returning home to \"the fixed foot.\"
32. Cavalier[,kævə'lɪə] Poets（保皇党派诗人）
Cavalier poets are, more often than not, knights and squires, who side with the king against the parliament and the puritans in the English revolution. They mostly deal in short songs on the flitting joys of the day, but underneath their lightheartedness lies some foreboding of impending doom.
• 1. Writing on the courtly themes of loyalty, love, and beauty, the cavalier poets produced finely
finished verses.
• 2. The common factor that binds the cavaliers together is their use of direct and colloquial
language expressive of a highly individual personality, and their enjoyment of the casual, the amateur（外行的，业余的）, the affectionate（充满深情的） poem written by the way.
• 3. They are “cavalier” in the sense, not only of being Royalists, but in the sense that they
distrust the over-earnest, the too intense.
• 4. The leading cavalier poets were Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Sir John Suckling, and
Thomas Carew. Most were admirers of Ben Jonson.
33. neoclassicism（新古典主义）
– It found its artistic models in the classical literature of the ancient Greek and Roman
writers like Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid.
– A partial reaction against the fires of passion blazed in the late Renaissance,
especially in the Metaphysical poetry.
--- Prose should be precise, direct, smooth andflexible.
--- Poetry should be lyrical（抒情的）, epical（叙事的）, didactic（教导的）, satiric or dramatic, and each class should be guided by its own principles.
--- Neo-classical writers are: John Dryden, Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Henry Fielding, Samuel Johnson, Oliver Goldsmith, Edward Gibbon, etc.
34. Bourgeoisie[,bʊəʒwɑ:'zi:]（中产阶级）(the 18th Century Age of Bourgeoisie
35. Enlightenment Movement(启蒙运动)
Under the influence of scientific discoveries (Newton) and flourishing of philosophies, French enlightenment started.
Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire伏尔泰, Montesquieu孟德斯鸠, Locke洛克, Hobbes霍布斯, and Rousseau卢梭 believed that the world was an object of study and that people could understand and control the world by means of reason and empirical（以观察或实验为依据的） research.
• an intellectual movement beginning in France and then spread throughout Europe • a continuation of Renaissance in belief in the possibility of human perfection through education • the guiding principle or slogan（标语，标号） is Ration（定量？）/Reason, natural right and
equality (American Independence War in 1776; French Revolution in 1789) • Ration became standard for measurement of everything.
• In religion, it was against superstition（迷信）, intolerance（心胸狭窄）, and dogmatism（教
条主义，独断，武断）; in politics, it was against tyranny（暴政，苛政）; and in society, it was against prejudice, ignorance, inequality, and any obstacles to the realization of an individual’s full intellectual and physical well-being. At the same time, they advocated（提倡） universal education. In their opinion, human beings were limited, dualistic（二元的）, imperfect, and yet capable of rationality（合理性，合理的行为见解） and perfection through education.
The great enlighteners:
• Alexander Pope, • Joseph Addison, • Jonathan Swift, and
• Samuel Johnson
36. Prose
1) Biography（传记）: James Boswell’s Life of Samuel Johnson
2) Journalism/Periodicals（期刊）: Steels and Addison’s literary journals 3) Realist novel（现实主义小说）: bourgeois in essence --- subject matter, --- readership,
--- didactic purpose,
--- form (prose, comic epic);
37. Gothic novel (from mid-18th century)
--- Devoted to tales of horror and the darker supernatural forces
--- Derives its name from similarities to
Medieval(中古的,中世纪) Gothic architecture --- Gothic Horror: A thriller designed not only to terrify or frighten the audience, but to convey a sense of moral failure or spiritual darkness.
--- The Gothic in England begins with The Castle of Otranto in 1760, by Horace Walpole, which emphasized the supernatural mixed with the grotesque in a medieval setting.
--- Anne Radcliffe in Mysteries of Udolpho perfected the sentimental gothic in the 1790s. --- Frankenstein(1817) by Mary Shelley
---influenced the later generations: Coleridge, Keats, Dickens, Bronte sisters, etc.
38. Sentimentality literature伤感文学
--- It was a partial reaction against that cold, logic rationalism which dominated people’s life since the last decades of the 17th century.
--- A ready sympathy and an inward pain for the misery of others became part of accepted social morality and ethics.
--- started by Samuel Richardson’s Pamela and Clarissa
--- represented in novel form by Laurence Sterne’s A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768)
--- represented in poetry by “The Graveyard School”: Thomas Gray, Edward Young
--- emphasizing the emotion/heart instead of ration ---gradually merged into Romanticism
39. Satire: A literary manner which blends humor with criticism for the purpose of instruction
or the improvement of humanity. The necessary ingredients --- Humor
--- Criticism, either general criticism of humanity or human nature or specific criticism of an individual or group. --- Some kind of moral voice: simply mocking or criticism is not “satire.”
The best and most representative works are found in those written by Pope and Swift.
Alexander Pope
• Mock epic: “The Rape of the Lock” • Literary Satire: “The Dunciad”
• Jonathan Swift
• “A Modest Proposal” • Gulliver’s Travels
40. The Realistic Novel
The English middle-class people were ready to cast away the aristocratic romance and to create a new and realistic literature of their own to express their ideas and serve their interests.
The whole life in its ordinary aspects of the middle class became the major source of interest in literature.
Major novelists: Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, Henry Fielding, Laurence Sterne, Oliver Goldsmith, Tobias George Smollett…
41. Elements of Fiction
1. Theme: the central idea or statement about life that unifies and controls the total
work
Identifying the theme
• To avoid confusing a work’s theme with its subject or situation. • The statement of theme does the work full justice.
• It is fully and completely supported by the work’s other elements.
• The title of the work often suggests a particular focus or emphasis for the
reader’s attention.
2. Plot :The action in fiction, the arrangement of events that make up a story.
• Plots turn on a conflict, or struggle between opposing forces, . how one action
leads into another.
• Structure is the design or form of the action, . patterns and the shape of content. •The classic pattern: exposition, complication, crisis, falling action, and
resolution
3. Character：Characters are imaginary people that writers create.
•Concerned with being able to establish the personalities of the characters and
to identify their intellectual, emotional, and moral qualities. •Concerned with the techniques to create and develop characters. •Concerned with whether the characters are credible and convincing.
The major, or central, character of the plot is the protagonist (主角).
The opponent, the character against whom the protagonist struggles or contends, is the
antagonist (反角).
Flat characters are those who embody or represent a single characteristic, trait, or idea,
or at most a
very limited number of such qualities. (type characters, one-dimensional
characters)
Round characters are just the opposite. They embody a number of qualities and traits, and
are
complex multi-dimensional characters of considerable intellectual and emotional
depth.
Most importantly, they have the capacity to grow and change.
4. Setting
Setting is both the physical locale that frames the action and
the time of day or year, the climatic conditions, and the historical period during which the action takes place. The functions of setting:
• Setting as a background for action. • Setting as antagonist
• Setting as means of creating appropriate atmosphere. • Setting as a means of revealing character.
• Setting as a means of reinforcing theme.
5. Point of view
The method of narration that determines the position, or angle of vision from which the
story is told.
Commonly used points of view
• Third-person point of view omniscient • Third-person point of view limited • First-person point of view
6. Language and style
Style consists of diction (the individual words an author chooses) and syntax (the arrangement of those words) , as well as such writing devices as rhythm and sound, allusion, ambiguity, irony, paradox, and figurative language.
Each writer’s style is unique. It constitutes his “signature” in a way that sets his work apart.
42. Methods of Characterization
• • • • •
Characterization through the use of names. Characterization through appearance. Characterization by the author. Characterization through dialogue. Characterization through action.
43. Diction（措辞）: the type and quality of the individual words that comprise an author’s
basic vocabulary.
• • • • • • •
The denotative meaning of words, The connotative meaning;
The degree of concreteness or abstractness; The degree of allusiveness;
the parts of speech they represent; The length and construction;
The level of usage they reflect (standard or nonstandard; formal, informal, or colloquial);
• The imagery they contain;
• The figurative devices (simile, metaphor, personification, etc) they embody; n,tæks] 句法;句法规则〔分析〕:
44. Syntax['sɪ
The ways the author arranges words into phrases, clauses, and finally whole sentences to
achieve particular effects.
• The length—whether they are short, spare, and
economical or long and involved;
• The form—whether they are simple, compound, or
complex;
45. Construction of sentence
• Loose sentences that follow the normal subject-verb-object pattern, stating their
main idea near the beginning in the form of an independent clause,
• Periodic sentences工整句that deliberately（故意地，慎重地） withhold（扣留，
保留，抑制） or suspend（暂停，终止，悬，吊） the completion of the main idea until the end of the sentence,
• Balanced sentences（对杖句）in which two similar or antithetical ideas are
balanced.
46. Historical novel
• A novel where fictional characters take part in actual historical events and interact with real
people from the past. • Examples:
• Sir Walter Scott: Ivanhoe, Waverly • James Fennimore Cooper:
The Last of the Mohicans
47. Romanticism
• politically: a reaction against industrial revolution and the social system • literarily: a reaction against Neo-classicism; concerned with imagination and
personal feeling instead of the power of ration / reason • philosophically: It stresses individualism（个人主义） instead of social order.
①Artistic feature
verse form: lyrics, odes（颂，赋）, sonnets, ballads
diction（措辞）: fresh, simple, commonly used colloquial language
themes: the beauty and mysticism of nature; simple, common rural life; facts and ideas of revolution
• 浪漫主义是对新古典主义的反驳：诗歌内容不再是对现实的反映或道德说教，而是诗人内心涌出的真实
感情；诗歌语言不是模仿经典作家去追求高雅精致，而是要贴近普通人的日常用语。浪漫主义诗人崇尚自然，主张返朴归真。浪漫主义是一个比较笼统的概念，每个诗人各有其特征。
②Definition
• Romanticism: a movement in art and literature in the 18th and 19th centuries in revolt against
Neoclassicism of the previous centuries.
• Friedrich Schlegel defined it as “literature depicting emotional matter in an imaginative
form.”
• Victor Hugo’s phrase \"liberalism in literature\" is also apt.
③Characteristics
• Imagination, emotion, and freedom are the focal points of romanticism. Any list of its particular
characteristics includes subjectivity and an emphasis on individualism; spontaneity; freedom from rules; solitary life rather than social life; beliefs that imagination is superior to reason and devotion to beauty; love of and worship of nature; and fascination with the past, especially the myths and mysticism of the middle ages. ④English romantic poets:
William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats American romantic poets:
Ralph W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Henry D. Thoreau, Herman Melville, Walt Whitman
⑤Romantic Literature
a negative attitude toward the existing conditions of political, economic, and social life under the firm rule of the bourgeoisie, though such an attitude came from writers of quite different class stands:
--- some speaking for the feudal aristocracy; --- some for the patriarchal peasantry;
--- some for the new industrial proletariat.
• Lakers/ Lake Poets (The Passive Romantic Poets): Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey
• –criticized industrial capitalism by advocating the return to the patriarchal society of the
past
• Active Romantic Poets: Byron, Shelley, Keats
• --attacked the tyranny and exploitation of both feudalism and capitalism and called on the
oppressed people to rise against their earthly tyrants
The conflict between the two camps was not simply one of personal hatred, but in a way stood for the broad social struggle between the landed aristocracy and the oppressed multitude of the English people.
48. Differences between the 18th & the 19th century; between Neoclassicism & Romanticism:
• • • • • • • •
reason vs passion
reason vs imagination commercial vs natural
industrial vs pastoral（田园生活的，农村生活的） present vs past society vs individual
order and stability（稳定，稳固） vs freedom
decorative expression vs simple and spontaneous（天真的，率性的，自发的，无意识的）expression
49. Lakers/Lake Poets:
(Wordsworth, Coleridge, Southey) radical youth; conservative（保守的，传统的） old age
• --had radical inclinations in their youth but later turned conservative and received favors
from the great.
• –criticized industrial capitalism （资本主义） by advocating the return to the patriarchal
society (男权社会) of the past • --attacked by Byron
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